When attitudes and habits don’t correspond: Self-control depletion increases persuasion but not behavior
Abstract
Changing attitudes does not necessarily involve the same psychological processes as changing behavior, yet
social psychology is only just beginning to identify the different mechanisms involved. We contribute to this
understanding by showing that the moderators of attitude change are not necessarily the moderators of behavior
change. The results of three studies (Ns = 98, 104, 137) employing an ego depletion manipulation indicate that
although people are more likely to agree with a persuasive message when executive control is reduced they are
not more likely to change their behavior. Rather, under conditions of ego depletion, attitudes became less correlated with behaviors after persuasion. Moreover, in Study 3, we provide an explanation for this phenom-
enon: People are more likely to agree with a persuasive message when depleted but are also more likely to fall back on habits that may conflict with their new evaluations. A mini meta-analysis of the data indicated that ego-
depletion had a medium effect size on the difference between attitude change and behavior change, N = 339, d = −0.51, 95% CI [−0.72, −0.29]. Jointly, these studies suggest an integrative, resource-based explanation
to attitude-behavior discrepancies subsequent to persuasion.
Puzzles of Interpersonal Listening: Conflicting Findings, Theories, and Future Research
Guy Itzchakov, Graham D. Bodie
Listening
Listening is widely recognized as essential to human interaction, yet research on it remains conceptually fragmented and
theoretically inconsistent. Although extensive evidence shows that good listening benefits emotional, cognitive, motivational,
and relational outcomes, the field lacks consensus about what listening is, how it should be defined, and under what conditions it helps or hinders interaction. This article synthesizes these tensions by identifying 10 core “listening puzzles” that
reveal contradictions in existing theories and findings: (1) what constitutes good listening and its dimensions such as empathy
and non‐judgment; (2) the paradox of distraction and invisible inattention; (3) the relationship between listening and
agreement; (4) when listening requires follow‐up action; (5) the benefits and risks of silence; (6) asymmetries between
speakers' and listeners' perceptions; (7) the dual role of question‐asking; (8) the role of paraphrasing in demonstrating active
engagement and non‐judgmentalness; (9) the balance between speaking and listening; and (10) the link between listening and
personality. Together, these puzzles demonstrate that listening is neither a fixed skill nor a uniformly positive behavior, but a
context‐dependent, relational process shaped by perception, goals, and situational norms. By mapping these puzzles, the
article provides a foundation for a more integrated and nuanced understanding of how listening operates across interpersonal
and social contexts.
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Attitudes in an interpersonal context: Psychological safety as a route to attitude change
Guy Itzchakov, Kenneth G. DeMarree
Attitudes
Interpersonal contexts can be complex because they can involve two or more
people who are interdependent, each of whom is pursuing both individual
and shared goals. Interactions consist of individual and joint behaviors
that evolve dynamically over time. Interactions are likely to affect people’s
attitudes because the interpersonal context gives conversation partners a
great deal of opportunity to intentionally or unintentionally influence each
other.
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